landslides

LANDSIDES

Landslides
Landslides are among the major natural disasters or calamities in the world. In hilly terrains of India, including Himalayan mountains landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disasters that strike life and property almost perennially and occupy a position of major concern. These landslides, year after year, bring about untold misery to human settlements apart from causing devastating damages to transportation and communication network. Landslides, debris fall, debris slide, debris flow, rock toppling etc. cause destruction of slope and ground surface, initiating the change of uncontrolled erosion in the mountain terrains.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE LANDSLIDES
Landslides occur because of the interplay of several factors.
Natural factors
★ Intensity of rainfall
★ Steep slopes
★ Stiffness of slopes
★ Highly weathered rock layers
★ Soil layers formed under gravity
★ Seismic activity
★ Poor drainage
Man made factors
★ Deforestation leading to soil erosion
★ Non-engineered excavation
★ Mining and quarrying
★ Non-engineered construction
★ Land use pattern

Vulnerable houses are those which are situated on:

• Existing landslides area.
• Steep natural slopes.
• Areas in or at the mouths of drainages (such as canyons).
• Houses constructed near foothills.

PROTECTION MEASURES FROM DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS
Site Selection
Landslides generally happen where they have occurred in the past, and in identifiable hazard locations. Areas that are typically considered safe from landslides include areas that have not moved in the past; relatively flat areas away from sudden changes in slope; and areas at the top of or along ridges. Houses built at the toe of steep slopes are often vulnerable to slides and debris flows.
Signs and Warnings
A house located on a hill can detect possible slope failure by watching for these signs:
Doors or windows stick or jam for the first time.
New Cracks appear on plaster, tile, brick or foundations.
Outside walls, walks or stairs begin pulling away from the building.
Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as streets or driveways.
Underground utility lines break.
Fences, retaining walls, utility poles or trees tilt or move.
Water or bulging ground appears at the base of a slope.

The potential for landslides and destructive erosion can be greatly reduced or prevented with proper development, sound construction techniques, seasonal inspections and regular maintenance of drainage facilities.

Earthquake

 EARTHQUAKE

"An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling of the ground produced by the abrupt displacement of rock masses".

• Most earthquakes result from the movement of one rock mass past another in response to tectonic forces.
• The focus is the point where the earthquake's motion starts.
• The epicenter is the point on the earth's surface that is directly above the focus.
• Earthquake Magnitude is a measure of the strength of an earthquake as calculated from records of the event made on a calibrated seismograph.
• In 1935, Charles Richter first defined local magnitude, and the Richter scale is commonly used today to describe an earthquake's magnitude.
• Earthquake Intensity.  is a measure of the effects of an earthquake at a particular place. It is determined from observations of the earthquake's effects on people, structures and the earth's surface.
• Among the many existing scales, the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 12 degrees, symbolized as MM, is frequently used
  

Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards can be categorized as either direct hazards or indirect hazards.
Direct Hazards

• Ground shaking
• Differential ground settlement
• Soil liquefaction
• Immediate landslides or mud slides, ground lurching and avalanches
• Permanent ground displacement along faults
• Floods from tidal waves, Sea Surges & Tsunamis
  

Indirect Hazards

• Dam failures
• Pollution from damage to industrial plants
• Delayed landslides.

Most of the damage due to earthquakes is the result of strong ground shaking. For large magnitude events, trembling has been felt over more than 5 million sq. km.

Site Risks
Some common site risks are:

• Slope Risks - Slope instability, triggered by strong shaking may cause landslides. Rocks or boulders can roll considerable distances.
• Natural Dams - Landslides in irregular topographic areas may create natural dams which may collapse when they are filled. This can lead to potentially catastrophic avalanches after strong seismic shaking.
• Volcanic Activity - Earthquakes may be associated with potential volcanic activity and may occasionally be considered as precursory phenomena.
• Explosive eruptions are normally followed by ash falls and/or pyroclastic flows, volcanic lava or mud flows, and volcanic gases.
  

Geological disasters

Geological disasters

Geological disasters are caused by the transition of rock mass from stable equilibrium to the unstable state. This transition is accompanied by release of large amounts of energy. The disasters of this type are classified as:

1. Earthquake
2. Landslides
3. Tsunami
4. Mining

Earthquake

Earthquakes are one of the most dangerous and instantaneously destructive natural hazards. It is not possible to forecast earthquakes with regard to time and place of occurrence or magnitude. A large portion of our country is vulnerable to earthquake activity of varying magnitudes. The nature and impact of earthquake disaster is dependent on:

• its magnitude
• geological and soil conditions
• location of fault
• construction of major structures and 
• prevailing construction practices in the particular areas.

India has a very long history of earthquakes. A few major earthquakes are listed below:

1. Rann of Kutch (1819) magnitude 8.0
2. Assam (1897) magnitude 8.7
3. Kangra (H.P.) (1905) magnitude 8.0
4. Bihar-Nepal border (1934) magnitude 8.4
5. Andaman Islands (1941) magnitude 8.0 and
6. Assam (1950) magnitude 8.6.

In the recent past, India experienced major earthquakes at 

1. Uttarkashi (1991)
2. Latur (1993) and Jabalpur (1997)
3. Chamoli (1999) 
4. Bhuj (2001).

In the earthquake that occurred at Uttarkashi:

• The affected area had a known history of earthquake occurrence and widespread damage took place due to this earthquake.
• The non-engineered buildings found throughout the rural areas and the old stone buildings in the towns suffered severe damage.
• The engineered buildings faced the earth quake in a very safe manner and suffered no damage, except for minor cracks in the buildings
• There was large scale damage to infrastructural facilities in the earthquake affected area.
• The damage to roads was due to rockfall, landslides and' rock-slides along the road side slopes causing heavy damage
• Services like communication network and power supply system were affected very badly
• The buildings that house health and education facilities suffered damaged the joints in the piped supply lines failed due to ground shaking, resulting in disruption of water supply
• A large number of bridges were located to cross the rivers and deep river valleys throughout the hilly area. 
• The Gawana bridge on the road to Gangotri suffered 'slight to medium damages.

In the earthquake that occurred at Latur:

This earthquake struck the Marathwada region of Maharashtra state on 30th September 1993. The impact of this earthquake was felt in the adjoining states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

also.

• Widespread damage took place due to this earthquake.
• Due to the earthquake most of the houses were destroyed' causing death of people in large numbers as also a wide spread damage to installations and properties
• The entire region had a traditional system of dwelling unit construction which involved heavy stone walls, and a massive roof over the wooden timber sub-structure. 
• During the earthquake most of the houses were destroyed' causing death of people in large numbers along with widespread damage to installations and properties
• Army services were pressed into action for the rescue operation. This involved clearing rubble, rescuing the injured, removal and cremation of dead bodies.
• Provisions were made for temporary relief shelters to the survivors of the earthquake. These
• shelters were made up ofG.1. (galvanized iron) sheeted roofs over the bamboo
• or wooden frames. About 30,000 families were provided the temporary
• shelters in the two worst affected districts of Latur and Osmanabad,

Landslides

• Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope and have come to include a broad range of motions whereby falling, sliding and flowing under the influence of gravity dislodges earth material. 
• They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing heavy block the flow or river for quite some time. 
• The formation of river blocks can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on it's bursting. In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas, landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disaster the often strike life and property and occupy a position of major concern.

The two regions most vulnerable to landslides are 

• the Himalayas and 
• the Western Ghats. 

The Himalayas mountain belt comprise of tectonically unstable younger geological formations subjected to severe seismic activity. The Western Ghats and Nilgiris are geologically stable but have uplifted plateau margins influenced by neo- tectonic activity. Compared to Western Ghats region, the slides in the Himalayas region are huge and massive and in most cases the overburden along with the underlying lithology is displaced during sliding particularly due to the seismic factor.

Incidences of landslides in India

Himalayas                                                                       - High to very high

North-eastern Hills                                                         - High

Western Ghats and the Nilgiris                                       - Moderate to high

Vindhayachal                                                                  - Low

Tsunami

• The term ‘Tsunami’ has been coined from the Japanese term Tsu meaning ‘harbour’ and nami meaning ‘waves’. Tsunamis are waves generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or underwater landslides and can reach 15m or more in height devastating coastal communities.
• Tsunamis caused by nearby earthquakes may reach the coast within minutes. When the waves enter shallow water, they may rise to several feet or, in rare cases, tens of feet, striking the coast with devastating force. The Tsunami danger period can continue for many hours after a major earthquake.
• Tsunamis are nearly always created by movement of the sea floor associated with earthquakes which occur beneath the sea floor or near the ocean. Tsunamis may also be generated by very large earthquakes far away in other areas of the Ocean. Waves caused by these travel at hundreds of kilometres per hour, reaching the coast several hours after the earthquake.
• Tsunamis can be very large. In coastal areas their height can be as great as 10m or more (30m in extreme cases), and they can move inland several hundred meters. All low-lying coastal areas can be struck by tsunamis.
• A tsunami consists of a series of waves. Often the first wave may not be the largest. The danger from subsequent tsunami waves can last for several hours after the arrival of the first wave.
• Sometimes a tsunami causes the water near the shore to recede, exposing the ocean floor. This is nature’s Tsunami warning.
• The force of some tsunamis is enormous. Large rocks weighing several tons along with boats and other debris can be moved inland several meters by tsunami wave activity. Homes and other buildings are destroyed. All floating material and water move with great force and causing mortality or injuries to people.
• Tsunamis can occur at any time of day or night.
• Tsunamis can travel up rivers and streams that lead to the ocean thereby polluting them.
• Tsunamis may also be generated by very large earthquakes far away in other areas of the Ocean. Waves caused by these travel at hundreds of kilometres per hour, reaching the coast several hours after the earthquake. Unlike ordinary tides, which are short, frequent and surface level, tsunami, are barely noticeable in their deep-sea formation stage. At this point despite a wavelength up to 100 km, they are shallow in depth and move at hundreds of kilometre per hour.

Mining

Disaster Management

 Disaster Management

Disaster management is a process of effectively preparing for and responding to disasters. It involves 

• strategically organizing resources to lessen the caused by disasters. 
• a systematic approach to managing the responsibilities of disaster prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery.

Disaster management efforts aim to reduce or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and appropriate assistance to the victims of a disaster, and achieve a rapid and effective recovery.

Disaster and Development

Disaster and Development

Historically it has been seen there has been an apparent increase in the number of natural disasters resulting in increasing losses due to urbanization and population growth. This is a rigid one-sided outlook of development that recognizes only growth aspect, without an eye on sustainability. In the context of definition of a disaster. we recognize only damage and destruction. 

With reference to the tsunami in 2004, Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Thailand suffered from non-ecologically sustainable over-development in coastal areas and India, Sumatra and North East Sri Lanka, suffered because affected pockets were inaccessible due to underdevelopment and impoverishment of the people. Such disastrous events have demonstrated that development has to continue, but with due concern for protection of the environment.

Science and technology should be fruitfully employed to control disasters. Alternatives should be generated by research and development in science and technology with emphasis on science and technology, especially information communication technology (ICT) for better understanding of disasters and better reach of disaster response efforts

Disasters and Development are interrelated, both in positive and negative ways. 

With regard to the relationship between disasters and development we can identify ‘four’

different dimensions to this relation:

1. Disasters can set back development by wiping out decades of economic and social development. Disasters can also limit social development. Disasters worsen poverty in communities.
2. Disasters can provide development opportunities by development policy in the aftermath period. Disasters can elevate the development potential of a society by becoming a catalyst for change in the form of reconstruction and social development as well as upgrading administrative capability and training of personnel involved. Ex: Reforestation programs after landslides and flash floods to check soil erosion, have spin off effects on other sectors, such as improved air quality, better flora and fauna, health and longevity for people, etc. These in-turn work as development programs in the form of more sources of income for the poor, enhanced employment opportunities, etc. Development opportunities often are compromised because of excessive focus on relief assistance. Disasters can also be a major vehicle for carrying out major development programs.
3. Development can increase vulnerability as Social and economic development can increase the vulnerability of the community to disaster risks. It has been shown time and again that economic development increases disaster risk. Rapid urbanisation has increased the vulnerability of the community. Urban development often leads to an influx of relatively low income groups, with large scale settlement of marginal land or in high density, poor quality housing. Marine and coastal zone development leads to population concentrations, exposed to possible storm surge, high wind, flash flood and landslide risks. 
4. Development can reduce vulnerability as demonstrated in the examples given below:
1. Disaster resistant technologies in buildings that are being newly constructed in Malaysia is a good example of development oriented towards risk reduction
2. Social development includes awareness/education to reduce human vulnerability and limit losses in a disaster
3. A literate and better-educated population, including women and girls, is better able to cope up effectively to any disaster by responding effectively to early warnings

Capacity

 Capacity

The International Strategy on Disaster Reduction (ISDR), United Nations (UN), defines Capacity “as a combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. This involves managing resources, both in normal times as well as during crisis or adverse conditions. The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and induced hazards.”

It is widely believed that vulnerability and capacity should be integrated in all assessments with regard to disaster management. The severity of the impact of a disaster depends on the balance of vulnerability and capacity of a particular community.

As per the FAO directory, "Within the context of disaster management, development is defined as a process that reduces vulnerabilities and increases capacities".

The five categories involving Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis (VCA) are:

1. Economic 
2. Natural
3. Physical
4. Human, and 
5. Social

Risk

Risk

“Risk” usually refers to the probability of loss of a ‘valued resource’. In the context of health and environmental risks, the word “risk”  integrates two ideas:

1. the potential for detrimental consequences and
2. the uncertainty associated with the circumstances

In the context of disaster management, risk implies application of knowledge to forewarn of disasters accurately and anticipate the risks involved with regard to land use management and project planning decisions in hazard prone areas so as to prevent/reduce impact. 

With regard to disaster terminology, Risk is defined as “the likelihood of a specified undesired event occurring within a specified period or in specified circumstances.

Risk = f (frequency or probability, consequence)

Frequency is usually expressed as events per year 

Probability is a number between 0 and 1

Consequence is usually measured in terms of either money or fatalities

Hazard is a potentially dangerous situation

Disaster is a hazard leading to a catastrophe

Vulnerability is the physical, social, economic, cultural or based on inclination to hazards

Risk is the harm likely from anticipated event and may be measured through comparative analysis of data collected over time and scientific simulation studies. Measurement of risk in disaster management is a complex issue.

Hazard

Hazard

According to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), a hazard is a natural process or phenomenon that may pose negative impacts on the economy, society, and ecology. It includes both natural factors and associated human factors.

A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Hazards can be the creation of man or the environment. 

A hazard is always present and it simply acts as a catalyst to bring adverse effects into focus. A hazard is defined as a potential cause which is activated when the right configuration of factors present themselves. A hazard may or may not lead to an event. 

A hazard is defines as “a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.” Hazards could be, natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards).

Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Hence, Hazard analysis entails the identification, study and monitoring of a hazard to determine its potential, origin and characteristics. 

Hazards are generally classified as:

• Sudden onset hazards: geological and climatic hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
• Slow onset hazards: (environmental hazards) drought, famine, environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, and pest infestation.
• Industrial/Technological: system failures/accidents, spillages, explosions, and fires.
• Wars and civil strife: armed aggression, insurgency, terrorism, and other actions leading to  displaced persons and refugees.
• Epidemics: water and/or food-born diseases, person-to-person diseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-born diseases and complications from wounds.

Hazards could also be classified as direct and indirect. 

Examples of "Direct Hazards" include:

• Ground shaking
• Differential ground settlement
• Soil liquefaction
• Immediate landslides or mud slides, ground lurching and avalanches
• Permanent ground displacement along faults
• Floods from tidal waves, sea surges & tsunamis

Examples of "Indirect hazards" include:

• Dam failures
• Pollution from damage to industrial plants
• Delayed landslides.

Site risks in an earthquake prone area include:

• Slope risks
• Natural dams (formed by landslides in irregular topographic areas and are susceptible to collapse when filled leading to catastrophic avalanches after strong seismic shaking)
• Volcanic activity

Hazards can also be classified as long-term of short-term as per the classification proposed by K. Smith

Identification of hazards involves analyses of scientific data to trace the causal path of

events leading to a disaster.

QUIZ - 2

QUIZ - 2

1. List the important human factors that influence disaster severity
2. How are disasters a precursor to scientific advancements leading to development
3. List the factors affecting vulnerability to disasters
4. List the impact of disasters on dams and embankments
5. Define "climate change adaptation" and list a few examples of the same
6. Define "indigenous knowledge"
7. List a few appropriate technologies used in disaster management
8. Define Disaster Risk Management
9. List the components of disaster relief
10. What is disaster management policy
11. List few policies related to disaster management
12. List policies related to disaster management other than disaster management act 2005 and disaster management policy
13. List the priority themes of the sendai framework
14. List the programs related to disaster management
    

HW-Qs

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Assignment 1 (HW#01, HW#02 & HW#03)

HW# 01

Q1. Write about natural vs man made disasters with examples

Q2. Explain the classification of droughts

HW# 02

Q1. Give a detailed classification of disasters

Q2. Write about heat waves and cold waves

HW# 03

Q1. Write about culture of safety

Q2. Write briefly about the roles and responsibilities of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in disaster management

Assignment 2 (HW#04 & HW#05)
HW#04

Q1.Briefly describe the interrelationship between disasters and development
Q2.What are the various factors affecting vulnerability to disasters

HW#05

Q1. Briefly explain the vulnerability profile of India
Q2.Briefly explain the institutional arrangements with respect to disaster risk management in India

Impacts of disasters

IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

The primary impact of disasters is destruction of the environment. Environment encompasses the physical environment with all the natural sources and the living environment covering all the plants, animals and microorganisms. The social, economic, political, environmental, human health and psychosocial impacts of disasters are discussed below.

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

Disasters can be extremely stressful, disruptive and traumatic for the affected people in a community. Social impacts of disasters is reflected in people experiencing increased mental health issues, alcohol misuse, domestic violence, chronic diseases, unemployment, family violence and environmental damage. Disasters entail social costs larger than direct financial impacts. Social impacts of disasters can be unbelievably stressful, disruptive and traumatic for the affected people. Entire communities can be uprooted, friends and family divided along with loss of homes, livelihoods and lives. People may experience shock and disbelief, fear and apprehension, anger, shame and guilt in the early days after a disastrous event. The cocial impacts of disasters can be summarized as:

• Changes in individual's role
• Disruption of social fabric
• Isolation
• Change in marital status
• Sexual abuse and domestic violence
• Orphans
• Single parent children
• Family and social disorganization
• Migration
• Lifestyle changes
• Breakdown of traditional social status

 ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

On the surface, natural disasters cause serious damage and appear to be bad for the economy. They destroy tangible assets as well as the human capital. Sometimes, the damage is severe enough to cause closure of companies and manufacturing facilities. However, the academic evidence concerning the economic impacts of disasters is mixed. Certain studies report that natural disasters may promote growth. This is because of improvement of productivity of the corporate sector of the economy due to updation of capital stock coupled with adoption of new technologies. This is called 'creative destruction'. If natural disasters expel inefficient firms (following the law of natural selection), the average corporate productivity increases.
In conclusion, the recovery of the economy after natural disasters is closely intertwined with policy measures taken and the underlying economic conditions.The economic impacts of disasters can be summarized as:

• Loss of life
• Unemployment
• Loss of livelihood
• Loss of property or land
• Loss of household articles
• Loss of Crops
• Loss of public infrastructure

 POLITICAL IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

Natural disasters generally affect an individuals political trust and satisfaction with the government. Past research has studied the impact of disasters on long-term political impact of government and its policies. This has been achieved by way of examining retrospective voting and changes in attitudes towards civic engagement. At times, the effects on political trust occur immediately after a natural disaster.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

The environmental impacts of earthquakes are listed below:

• Collapsing buildings, property damage, loss of power, mudslides, floods, tsunamis, erosion, heavy flooding of inland areas, contaminated water supply, loss of habitat, toxic gases released into the environment, diseases, 
• Water resources may be contaminated with toxins or  be rendered unusable for human consumption
• Any disaster has an adverse impact on the local biodiversity and forestry
• There might be occurrences of landslides, avalanches and Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
• The built environment may be damaged to different extents at different locations
• The health, safety and well-being of human beings and live stock may be put to grave danger
• The groundwater resources are at a risk of being contaminated
• The disaster may damage the hydro-power projects

HEALTH IMPACTS OF DISASTERS
Any disaster natural or man-made invariably has an adverse effect on human health. Health impacts due to disasters may be broadly classified as:

• Physical injuries and
• Infectious diseases due to inhalation of contaminated (particulate matter or toxic gases) air or ingestion of contaminated (particulate matter or toxins or infectious worms/microorganisms/parasites) water
• Other hazardous situations (slippery terrain, etc)

PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

• Any disastrous event is beyond the scope of normal human experience causes traumatic stress
• More than 90% of the people affected by a disaster show untoward psychological effects
• The extent and severity of the event affect the likelihood of people suffering from  the effects of the disaster
• Some of the vulnerability factors include:
• Witnessing death
• Being trapped
• Stigmatization of victims
• Lack of availability of social support networks
• People may suffer from psychological and behavioural syndrome
• People may be affected with psychological disorders
• People may suffer from persistent insomnia, anxiety, PTSD and depression
• self-destructive coping skills that include excessive alcohol and substance use and excessive work
• Despair, panic, survival guilt
• Inappropriate anger or resentment
• Aggressive or assaultive behaviour
• Lack of regard for other's comfort or dignity 
• Being uncooperative, defiant, rigid when dealing with problems or responding to requests for help
• Unprofessional demeanor
• Recurrent conflicts
• Difficulty with authority
• Inability to ask for or receive help
• Irritability, moodiness, verbal abuse
• Isolation
• Physical deterioration
• Distress
• Flashback
• Intrusion/Avoidance
• Hatred/Revenge
• Dependence/Insecurity
• Grief/Withdrawal/Isolation
• Guilt feeling
• Hypervigilance
• Lack of trust
• Helplessness
• Hoplessness