Causes of disasters

CAUSES OF DISASTERS

The various disasters and their causes are discussed below:

• Earthquakes: An Earthquake is caused by the sudden release of slowly accumulating strain energy along a fault in the Earth's crust. Areas of surface or underground that can experience Earthquakes are known as fault zones.
• Volcano: A volcano is caused due to sudden displacement of lava beneath the Earth's crust. Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are converging or diverging. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust. Volcanoes are classified as active volcano, dormant volcano and extinct volcano
• Cyclones: When water vapourises, it absorbs heat from the surroundings. Water vapour rises up and cools-down. The cooling water vapour releases heat and warms the atmosphere around it. The warm air rises and causes a drop in pressure. Air moves from surrounding high-pressure area to central low-pressure area. This cycle is repeated leading to the formation of a very low pressure system surrounded by very high-speed winds leading to the formation of a cyclone
• Floods: Flood is a natural occurrence where normally dry land is submerged in water. Floods may occur due to overflow of rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, dam breakage, clogged drains, excessive rain or melting of snow.
• Landslides: A landslide refers to downward movement of large masses of rock, soil, mud and organic debris. Landslides are caused due to the influence of gravity acting on weakened material that make-up sloping area of land. The triggering events for a landslide are Earthquakes or heavy rainfall. Excessive water or deforestation are the primary triggers for landslides
• Unrest / Conflicts / Wars: Wars have been a major source of disasters since the beginning of civilization. A few of the major reasons for war have been over natural resources, wealth, politically motivated or religious or social identity. In wars no party emerges victorious, the only end with destruction of natural resources
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Classification of disasters

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

Disasters are classified (based on source or origin) into:

1. Natural disasters and
2. Man-made disasters

Natural disasters are further classified (based on the location of their occurrence) into:

1. Terrestrial disasters and
2. Extraterrestrial disasters

Terrestrial disasters are classified into:

1. Endogenic disasters (examples of this type are listed below)
1. Earthquakes
2. Volcanoes
2. Exogenic disasters (examples of this type are listed below)
1. Atmospheric disasters
1. Drought
2. Rainfall
3. Snowfall
4. Winds
5. Hailstorms
2. Hydrospheric disasters (examples of this type are listed below)
1. Wave currents
2. Tsunamis
3. Floods
3. Lithospheric disasters (examples of this type are listed below)
1. Landslides
2. Weathering
3. Erosion
4. Silting
5. Avalanches
3. Biotic disasters
1. Floral disasters
2. Faunal disasters
3. Anthropogenic disasters (Human induced)
1. Physical disasters
1. Earthquake
2. Landslide
3. Erosion
2. Chemical disasters
1. Release of toxic chemical
2. Nuclear explosion
3. Biological disasters
1. Eutrophication
2. Population explosion

• Endogenic disasters originate under the surface of the Earth
• Exogenic disasters take place at the Earth's surface and are very destructive
• Biotic disasters occur due to activities of living organisms (Plants, animals or human beings)

Natural and Man-made disasters

Natural and man-made disasters

• Disaster is a sudden calamitous event that brings great damage, loss and destruction. In case of natural disasters steps can be taken to minimize the effects. Man made disasters can be avoided by careful planning and applying prevention methods. 
• Natural disasters are the destructive forces of nature that have a severe impact on the environment. Examples of natural disasters are blizzards, cyclones, earthquakes, famines, floods, landslides, tornadoes, tsunamis, volcanoes, wildfires, bushfires, etc.
• Manmade disasters are the hazards caused by human activities leading to the loss of life and property as well as damage to the country's economy and productive capacity. Examples of this kind are environmental pollution, terrorism, destruction of property, widespread hunger, road and rail accidents, bomb explosion, chemical spills, industrial accidents, nuclear accidents caused by by complex anthropogenic interacrions.
• Disasters can be classified based on their causative factors:
• Natural disasters are caused by natural forces while man made disasters are caused by activities of human beings. 
• Both types of disasters have a major impact on the society. 
• Examples of man-made disasters are 
• leakage of toxic chemical (MIC - Methyl Iso Cyanide) from the UCIL plant in Bhopal, India. 
• The great London smog of 1952 is another example of man-made disaster. The main cause for this disaster was severe air pollution and it resulted in the death of more than 6000 people aside from respiratory problems.

Tropical cyclones and local storms

TROPICAL CYCLONES AND STORMS

TROPICAL CYCLONE: 

• Tropical cyclones are generated in tropical areas of the ocean near the equator
• The winds generated move around a central eye
• Wind direction is counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere
• They are low-pressure systems
• The low pressure calm centre of circulation is called the 'eye'
• The area around the eye with the fastest, most violent winds is called the 'eye wall'
• Bands of thunderstorms circulating outward from the eye are part of the evaporation-condensation cycle that feed the storm are called 'Rain Bands'

Stages of development of a tropical cyclone:

1. Tropical wave is a trough of low-pressure in the trade-wind easterlies
2. Tropical disturbance is a moving area of thunderstorms in the tropics that maintains its identity for twenty four hours or more
3. Tropical depression: is a tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface winds is almost sixty kmph
4. Tropical storm is a tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed is almost 120 kmph
5. A tropical cyclone has maximum sustained surface winds of almost 118 knph. It is also called a hurricane or typhoon in different parts of the world 

The three events essential for a cyclone to form are:

1. A continuing evaporation-condensation cycle of warm, humid ocean air
2. Patterns of wind characterized by converging winds at the surface and  strong uniform wind speeds at higher altitudes
3. A pressure gradient between the surface and high altitude

LOCAL STORMS:

1. Storms are a result of vertical circulation in the atmosphere
2. Heavier (cold ) air sinks and warm air (lighter) rises
3. Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy
4. Strong winds are intense when a thunderstorm is accompanied by heavy rain
5. Due to precipitation surrounding air cools down and is dragged down
6. Near ground level, the stream of air veers into a horizontal plane causing rain or hail stones into a sloping trajectory, sometimes at 45 degrees from the vertical
7. A local storm is produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and accompanied by lightening and thunder, usually with strong gusts wind, heavy rain and sometimes with hail

Destruction by Cyclones
The destruction caused by cyclones depends on its intensity, location and size. The effects of a cyclone can be divided into:

• Primary Hazards
• Secondary Hazards and
• Tertiary Hazards

Examples of primary hazards are:

1. Strong winds, heavy rains and storms
2. Abnormal rise in sea level at the coast
3. Submergence of low lying areas near the coast resulting in drowning  of humans, livestock, habitations, destroying vegetation and soil fertility
4. Very strong winds damage houses, trees and communication systems resulting in huge loss to life and property

Examples of secondary hazards are:

1. Floods, fire and freshwater flooding
2. Floods in rivers causing submergence of nearby inhabited areas
3. Erosion of valuable fertile agricultural land
4. Destruction of buildings
5. Strong winds in forest regions result in forest fires which spread the intensity of cyclonic winds

 Examples of tertiary hazards are:

1. Tertiary hazards include diseases caused due to stagnant water, water poisoning and increase in prices of goods and resources

 Sometimes all the hazards occur simultaneously because of which relief operations become difficult. . As the water level rises in the streets, transportation, communication, rescue operations and clean-up efforts extremely difficult.
Death toll due to cyclones is very high. Despite their devastating effects, cyclones of low intensity are beneficial because they bring rain to dry areas and move heat from the tropical regions.

Destruction due to local storms
Strong winds due to storms can damage and destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges and other outside objects turning loose objects into deadly flying projectiles.
Local storms damage the power supply to the local region
They also damage communication and hamper rescue and relief efforts
Cloud-to-ground frequently occurs during storms
They also damage vital local infrastructure

Cumulative atmospheric hazards or disasters

CUMULATIVE ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS OR DISASTERS

The word 'cumulative' refers to increment by successive additions. Atmospheric hazards or disasters refers to oxygen deficiency, dust, chemical vapours, welding fumes, fog or mists that can interfere with the body's ability to transport and utilize Oxygen. Such hazards have negative toxicological effects on the human body. 

Confined spaces can be found in industrial settings,public utilities and the construction industry. The safety hazards associated with confined spaces can cause serious injury and death. These hazards can be called as atmospheric hazards or physical hazards.

Atmospheric hazards include:

• Oxygen deficiency
• Oxygen displacement
• Flammable atmospheres and
• Toxic gases

Oxygen deficiency: Low levels of oxygen can be caused by consumption of Oxygen during open flame operations such as welding, cutting or brazing. In addition, low levels of Oxygen can be present in manholes that are located near garbage dumps, landfills and swampy areas where fermentation has caused the consumption of oxygen.

Oxygen displacement: Some type of gases will displace oxygen from a confined space. Sometimes Nitrogen is used to purge gases from tanks. If a person enters the tank before Nitrogen was properly removed and vented from the tank, the person could die within a matter of minutes

Flammable atmospheres: Some confined spaces could contain flammables like solvents, fuel oil, gasoline, kerosene, etc that provide fuel for combustion. For the atmosphere to become flammable, it must have the proper mixture of oxygen and fuel. A fire hazard is possible in confined spaces if the right mixture of oxygen, fuel and a spark are present.

Toxic gases: Toxic gases can be present in a confined space because of type of manufacturing processes or toxic substances during production or biological and chemical breakdown of the product being stored in the tank. Common types of toxic gases encountered in confined spaces are:

1. Hydrogen sulphide: Colourless gas with odour of rotten eggs It inhibits exchange of oxygen at the cellular level and causes asphyxiation. It causes a loss of sense of smell
2. Carbon monoxide: It is a colourless and odourless gas and inhibits the body's ability to transport Oxygen to all parts of the body
3. Solvents: Solvents such as kerosene, gasoline, paint strippers, degreasers are flammable and when inhaled at high concentrations causes Central Nervous System (CNS) effects such as dizziness, drowsiness, lack of concentration, confusion, headaches, coma and ultimately death

Two or more of the above listed hazards or disasters occurring together adds-up the effects and this is called 'Cumulative atmospheric hazards or disasters'

Impact of disasters on development projects

IMPACT OF DISASTERS ON DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

Disasters derail development. According to the United Nations (UN), over the past two decades, disasters from natural hazards have affected more than 4 billion people, claimed more than 1 billion lives, and caused almost U.S. $ 2 trillion in economic losses. Disasters have a devastating effect on development. Apart from loss of human life and economy, the psychological impact of disasters on the mental health of the affected people leads to low attendance at work and retards the economic growth of the region in general. The impact of disasters on specific development projects is discussed below-

IMPACT ON DAMS

The drive for economic growth has exposed populations to increased risk.Destruction has been exacerbated by the development of dams in fragile ecosystems. Hence, disasters reveal boundaries and limits to development.All countries suffer from disasters but their impact is felt to the maximum extent in poor countries.In case of development project involved in construction of dams, the disasters like flash floods, earthquakes and landslides can delay the project and adversely affect the finances allocated to the project as additional expenditure will be required in operations like clearing of debris, redesigning the project to suit the changed landscape, salvaging the usable construction material and disposal of incomplete structure. The ongoing progress of the project is pushed back and the project is delayed considerably.

IMPACT ON EMBANKMENTS

An embankment is a wall of brick or stone built to prevent flooding. The natural disasters that can affect its development are Earthquakes, landslides, floods as all these disasters result in affecting the surface of the Earth. Earthquakes destabilise the foundation of the embankment causing it to collapse. Floods may weaken the bonds between the bricks and stones by dissolving the cement or water may act as a lubricant between stones causing the stones to slide against each other leading to collapse of the structure. Flood water may be absorbed into bricks and swelling of bricks may lead to cracking and ultimately collapse of the structure. Earthquakes cause embankments to collapse as the entire structure is built on land. Landslides cause a section of land to slide over another and this disturbance of land also collapses the embankments.

IMPACT ON CHANGES IN LAND-USE
Land-use refers to a particular purpose for which a parcel of land is used. Change in land-use refers to using a particular area of land for a different purpose than which it was being used. Examples of this are:

1. Clearing a forest area for residential purpose
2. Clearing a forest area for agriculture
3. Clearing a residential area for industries
4. Clearing agricultural land for industries etc

Disasters will have a profound impact on any change in land-use. This happens primarily because the local community will have experienced the area and will have the knowledge regarding the do's and don'ts in specific areas as a result of previous experience. When ever there is a change in land-use pattern as listed above takes place activities of the new community might not be in synchronicity with the ecological cycle of resource withdrawal. This might result in disasters.Change in land-use has been the most common factor in recent natural disasters.Few examples are listed below:

• Mangroves in coastal areas act as natural barriers to strong winds and storm surge associated with land falling tropical cyclones. Cutting these mangroves for agriculture removes the natural barrier and thereby increases the intensity of land falling cyclones.
• Mangrove ecosystems along the mithi river and mahim creek in Mumbai were destroyed and replaced with haphazard construction. Sewage and garbage dump also destroyed the mangroves. The Mumbai floods of July 26, 2005 is a classic example of modifying land-use contributing to a major disaster where more than 1000 lives were lost.
• Chennai floods of 2015 and floods in Bengaluru and Hyderabad have demonstrated that haphazard change in land-use has become a major source of disasters caused by natural hazards
• Major floods in Uttarakhand in 2014 and Kashmir have shown that land-use change and unplanned development have been the real cause of large-scale disasters.

Cyclones and floods

Cyclones
The word 'cyclone' is derived from a Greek word meaning 'coil of snake'. In meteorological terms, cyclone is a low pressure from all sides. A cyclone may be elliptical, circular or 'V' shaped. Cyclones can be classified as tropical or temperate based on the location where they occur. The various impacts of cyclone  are listed below:

1. Storm surge causes
1. Flooding in coastal areas
2. Erosion of beach
3. Loss of soil fertility and
4. Damage to structures
2. Winds
1. Damage to structures
2. Loss of power and communication
3. Loss of life
4. Agricultural loss and livestock losses

      3.Torrential rains

1.  Flooding in inland areas
2. Land subsidence
3. Contamination of water supply system
4. Destruction of  crops and livestock

It is difficult to measure the magnitude and intensity of a cyclone. Cyclones are usually accompanied with heavy rains and wind storms. Cyclones paralyse entire public services including communication and transportation. Damages caused by cyclones  to sanitation infrastructure causes a heightened risk of communicable disease outbreak like diarrhea and cholera.

In order to mitigate the effects of cyclones, a rehabilitation plan with geographical focus and prioritization of intervention should be prepared. The plan should contain measurable indicators like infrastructure, livelihood and habitat.

Floods

Floods are a common feature in India occurring in many areas. Floods are a natural phenomena.

Flood is a water related disaster. A flood occurs when the geomorphic equilibrium in the river system is disturbed due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors. or when the system crosses the geomorphic threshold.

1. Flooding in the river bed due to aggradation of river bed (intrinsic threshold)
2. Flooding in the river due to heavy rainfall (extrinsic threshold)

Floods in major cities especially in major cities during rainy season are disastrous not only to the environment but also has serious implications for human life and property
The different types of flood are:

1. Flash floods
2. River floods
3. Coastal flood and
4. Urban flood

According to the duration, floods can be classified as:

1. Slow-onset floods 
2. Rapid-onset floods and
3. Flash floods

Floods can also be classified as:

1. Natural
1. Storm surge
2. Tsunami
3. Glacial melt
4. Landslides
5. Riverine, Estuarine and Marine floods
6. Examples are bursting of landslide and blockades in the catchment areas of rivers
2. Man-made
1. Breach of dam / barrage / embankment
2. Release from reservoir
3. Urban flood
4. Examples are breach of almatti and narayanpur dams in karnataka

Causes of floods

1. Silting of river bed
2. Inadequate capacity within the banks
3. River bank erosion
4. Flow obstruction and change in river course
5. Common floods in the main and tributary rivers
6. Poor natural drainage
7. Cyclones
8. Retardation of flow and backwater flow
9.  Heavy rainfall

Factors influencing floods:

1. Vegetation cover
2. Climate
3. Slopes
4. Rainfall intensity and duration
5. Land use
6. Rock type
7. Lakes and reservoirs
8. Soil depth and type

Impact of floods

1. Human loss
2. Property loss
3. Affects the major roads
4. Disrupts transportation services
5.  Spread of water-borne communicable services
6. Disruption in electricity and communication services
7. Social and economic disruption
8. Pollution of air and water

Flood forecasting - Anticipating floods before they occur helps to take precautions and warn people in order to prepare people in advance for flood conditions.
In order to predict floods accurately, a long-time series of historical data that relates stream flows to measured past rainfall events is required.
Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting techniques are important components of good flood dorecasting.

Cold waves

COLD WAVES

A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air. A cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls.

Cold wave can also be caused by invasion of very cold air over a large area. It is a prolonged period of excessively cold weather that may be accompanied by winds that cause excessive wind chills causing weather to appear colder than it actually is.Cold waves can be preceeded or accompanied by winter weather events like blizzards or ice storms.

Effects of cold waves:

• Sudden cold waves can cause frostbites, hypothermia and other serious medical conditions
• Grazing animals may die of starvation
• Water pipelines may freeze and burst
• Cold waves also invite excess electricity bills due to the energy spent in heating rooms at work or residence

Cold waves cannot be forecasted but can be managed by implementing proper disaster plans

Causes of floods and tropical cyclones

CAUSES OF FLOODS

Floods are experienced all over the world for a variety of reasons both natural and man made or human-induced. Some of the reasons are natural while many others are human induced or man-made. Some of the reasons are listed below:

1. Heavy rains - The simplest explanation for floods is heavy rains. Human beings designed infrastructure and systems designed to move rainwater into appropriate basins and reservoirs. However, incessant and heavy rains cause these systems to be overwhelmed causing rainwater to back-up and causes the water level to rise and flood residential and commercial buildings. This normally happens due to heavy rainfall over a short period of time.                                                 
2. Overflowing rivers - When rivers experience heavy rains, it could cause an overflow in the river and it may overflow the banks. Therefore overflowing rivers may also cause floods.                   
3. Broken dams - Due to heavy rains, old dams may fail, and unleash torrents of water on households. Levees may fail aggravating the effects of a flood. Dams may fail structurally releasing the water behind as a flood                                                                                                           
4. Urban drainage basins - Urban areas are primarily made of concrete and other impermeable material. This prevents water from being absorbed into the soil. This causes the drainage basins to fill-up quickly resulting in flooding of low lying areas                                                                             
5. Storm surges and tsunamis - Storm surges related to hurricanes and other storms can result in  flooding like tsunamis caused due to underwater earthquakes.Sometimes storm surges and tsunamis give little warning before coming ashore                                                                                    
6. Channels with steep sides - Flooding often occurs when there is fast run-off into lakes, rivers and other reservoirs. This occurs mainly where channels have steep sides.                                              
7. Lack of vegetation - Vegetation can help slow run-off and prevent flooding. Where there is sparse to no vegetation, there is no obstruction to the flow of water and this is aggravated by drought like conditions. Lack of vegetation after a drought can cause flash flooding. This can happen if heavy rains are followed by long periods of drought                                                          
8. Melting snow and ice - Heavy snow and precipitation in winter can cause flooding. This can aggravate flood like conditions in low-lying areas around the mountains. 

CAUSES OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

1. A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain.
2. "Tropical" refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. "Cyclone" refers to their winds moving in a circle
3. Winds in a cyclonic cyclone blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
4. Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water
5. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation
6. Coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to the impact of a tropical cyclone
7. The primary energy source for these storms is warm ocean waters
8. Though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions
9. They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate

Other Policies related to disaster management

OTHER POLICIES RELATED TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Aside from the National Disaster Management Policy (NDMP), disaster management through public policy is an effort to inquire into the process of a hazard turning into a disaster, identify its causes and rectify the same to prevent future occurrences. Public policies on disaster management is concerned with minimizing and preventing the damaging impact of a natural or man-made hazard.

Some of the policies that need to be addressed with regard to disaster management are:

1. Poor and weak or overcrowded buildings in an earthquake prone area
2. Poor land-use planning in flood prone areas
3. Inadequate and faulty laws regulating various processes and facilities

The Yokohoma strategy for disaster management at the world conference on disaster reduction held at Hyogo laid emphasis on disaster management policy framework, risk identification and early warning, knowledge management, reducing risk factors and preparedness for effective response and recovery.

The Hyogo conference adopted the framework for action (HFA) 2005-2015 called, "Building the resilience of National and Communities to Disaster."

In India, the central government lays down policies and provides technical, logistical and financial support while the district administration carries out most of the operations in collaboration with central and state level agencies.

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the chairmanship of the prime minister is the apex body for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management and for coordinating their enforcement and implementation throughout the country.

The National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM) is responsible for providing assistance to formulate national policy on disaster management.

At the state level, the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) headed by the state chief minister lays down policies and plans for disaster management in the state and policies related to disaster management at the district level are implemented by the District Magistrate (DM).

Policy of Emergency Operation Centres (PEO) at national, state and district level should be effectively implemented.

Appropriate knowledge and local resources

APPROPRIATE KNOWLEDGE AND LOCAL RESOURCES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Appropriate Knowledge in disaster management

The word 'appropriate' refers to apt or  suitable. and therefore, the phrase 'appropriate knowledge' refers to knowledge that is regarding any particular subject. In the context of disaster management, 'appropriate knowledge' refers to knowledge of importance that will help in understanding the causes of the event, techniques to prevent recurrence of such disastrous events and most importantly knowledge to save lives of the people needing help. Appropriate knowledge in the context of disaster management encompasses  knowledge regarding the local conditions, history of disastrous events in the past and the techniques employed to survive them. Appropriate knowledge can vary depending on the disaster. In case of earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides the expertise of a geologist will prove invaluable.The knowledge of a meteorologist is extermly valuable to predict storms and cyclones. Knowledge of a hydrologist, agricultural scientist and a meteorologist can help predict the occurrence of a drought or famine. Hence, different types of disasters require the expertise of different specialists. For a field as broad and unpredictable as disaster management, there might be a requirement of an expert from any field. This emphasizes the need for appropriate knowledge in order to tackle any disaster

Local resources in disaster management

Disasters always occur at the local level. The local government maintains control over all assets used in response and recovery efforts.

• People from the local community for the local resources when a disaster strikes
• Local people from the community act as the first primary provider of emergency response service
• Local people activate the Emergency Operations Center (EOC) and comprehensive emergency management plan
• Local resources coordinate the response with public and private organizations and agencies
• The local resources notify the state emergency management agency of the situation by regularly submitting situation reports
• The local resources activate necessary local governments and organizations that are signatories to mutual aid contracts
• The local resources can request the state to provide assistance

Disaster management act and policy

DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT & POLICY

Disaster management act

• The  Disaster Management act came into effect on 23rd December 2005 and it applies to the whole of India.
• For the purpose of disaster management, the centre shall set-up a body called the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) with the Prime Minister of India holding the position of chairperson, exofficio
• The Chairperson shall nominate a maximum of nine members to the NDMA and designate one of the nine members as the vice-chairperson
• The members shall meet as necessary as deemed by the chairperson of the NDMA
• The NDMA is responsible for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management to ensure timely and effective response to a disaster
• The NDMA can recommend provision of funds for disaster mitigation
• SDMA at the state level is headed by the chief minister
• State Executive Committee (SEC) headed by the chief secretary coordinates and monitors implementation of National Policy, National Plan and State Plan
• District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is headed by the District Majistrate
• National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) are supporting institutions for disaster management efforts
• The disaster management act represents a paradigm shift from a response centric approach to a holistic and integrated approach towards disaster management
• The DM act is backed by institutional framework and legal authority
• It has the power to create response fund and mitigation fund at national, state and district levels
• The Disaster Management act lays down policies and guidelines
• It coordinates enforcement and implementation of disaster policy and plans
• The DM act lays down broad guidelines and policies for functioning of the NIDM
• The DM act exercises general superintendence, direction and control of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
• The vision of the DM act is to build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and efficient response

Disaster management policy

The objectives of the disaster management policy are:

• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and mitigation
• Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems
• Ensuring sufficient response and relief through dedicated decision support system
• Undertaking reconstruction to build resilient communities

Plans, programs and legislation for DM

PLANS, PROGRAMS AND LEGISLATION RELATED TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Plans related to disaster management: The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) has been formulated with the aim to make India disaster resilient and reduce the loss of lives and assets. The plan is based on priority themes of the Sendai framework. They are:

1. Understanding disaster risk
2. Improving disaster risk governance
3. Investing in disaster reduction (through structural and non-structural measures) and disaster preparedness
4. Disaster preparedness and rebuilding a resilient community in the aftermath of a disaster

The NDMP covers all phases of disaster management i.e, prevention, mitigation, response and recovery. For each hazard, the NDMP incorporates four priorities listed in the Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction under the five thematic areas for action:

1. Understanding risk
2. Inter-Agency coordination
3. Investing in structural measures for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
4.  Investing in non-structural measures for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and
5.  Capacity development

The response part has eighteen activities as listed below:

1. Early warning, maps, satellite inputs and information dissemination
2. Evacuation of people and animals
3. Search and rescue of people and animals
4. Medical care
5. Drinking water, Dewatering pumps, Sanitation facilities, Public health
6. Food and essential supplies
7. Communication
8. Housing and temporary shelters
9. Power
10. Fuel
11. Transportation
12. Relief logistics and supply chain management
13. Disposal of animal caracasses
14. Fodder for live stock in scarcity hit areas
15. Rehabilitation and ensuring safety of live-stock and other animals, veterinary care
16. Data collection and management
17. Relief management
18. Media relations

The plan consists of a chapter on strengthening disaster risk governance. The six thematic areas in which the central and state governments have to take action in this context are:

1. Mainstream and integrate Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and institutional strengthening
2. Capacity development
3. Promote participatory approach
4. Work with elected representatives
5. Grievance Redress Mechanism
6. Promote quality standards, certifications and awards for Disaster Risk Management

• The NDMP incorporates horizontal and vertical integration among all the agencies and departments of the  Government. The plan also specifies the roles and responsibilities of all levels of government up to panchayat and urban local body level. The plan has a regional approach that is beneficial not only for disaster management but also for development planning
• The plan is designed in such a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster management.
• Major activities such as early warning, information dissemination, medical care, fuel, transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc are allotted to disaster managers in the form of a check-list
• The NDMP provides a general framework for recovery and offers flexibility to assess a situation and act accordingly
• The NDMP prepares communities to cope with disasters emphasizing the need for  information, education and communication activities

Programs related to disaster management

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) hosts several programs for mitigation and responsiveness for specific situations. A few of the programs include:

1. National Cyclone Risk Management Project
2. School Safety Project
3. Decision Support System
4. Scheme for training of community volunteers for disaster response in thirty most flood prone districts in India
5. Sustainable reduction in disaster risk in ten multi-hazard prone districts in five states of India
6. Capacity building on disaster management for IAS and central service officers at Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration (LBSNAA), Mussoorie

Legislation for disaster management
Laws and regulations serve as a foundation for building community resilience. The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) highlighted the importance of good legislation for effective disaster management. The Sendai framework adopted in 2015 insists for a renewed focus on reviewing and strengthening legal frameworks.International organizations have conducted a research and comparative study on disaster management in various countries.

Relevance of indigenous knowledge

RELEVANCE OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. This knowledge (indigenous), influences the decision-making of day-to-day life for the local people.

Indigenous knowledge is essentially a complex mixture of:

-language 

-systems of classification 

-resource use practices

-interactions rituals and 

-spirituality

Indigenous knowledge is a unique way of gaining information about important facets of world's cultural diversity and is an important source of locally-appropriate sustainable development.

Indigenous knowledge has proved to be of significance in reducing risk from disasters caused by natural phenomena like earthquake, cyclone, droughts, landslide, tsunami etc. Indigenous knowledge is culture specific and represents people's lifestyle.

Local communities use indigenous knowledge to reduce risk, cope and survive natural disasters. Indigenous knowledge refers to methods and practices developed by a group of people who have an advanced knowledge of the local environment that has accumulated from several generations of habitations. The important characteristics of this type of knowledge that distinguish it from other types of knowledge is that it originates within the community, has as non-formal means of dissemination, is collectively owned, is developed over several generations and is subjected to adaptation. It is embedded in the community's way of life as a means of survival.

A few examples of the use of indigenous knowledge to manage or mitigate the effects of disasters are listed below:

• Indigenous construction practices for earthquake safe housing in Kashmir known as "Taq" and "Dhajji Dewari" have earthquake resistant qualities
• Bamboo plantation along canal bunds by villagers in Assam has protected embankments, bridges and roads from damage during heavy rains
• The rich collection of indigenous knowledge uses local resources is cost efficient in the case of locals of Philippines who use it to master the damages by seasonal typhoons
• The traditional and indigenous knowledge of the people of Sri Lanka helped the people build a village tank cascade system for drought mitigation and rural-well being in the drought-prone Purana villages of Sri Lanka
• Indigenous knowledge (Mokken knowledge) helped several people survive the killer Tsunami of 2007 in Thailand
• Indigenous knowledge for weather forecasting is extensively used in the drought prone areas of Vietnam. In this case, farmers use moon observations and observe the habits of insects to cultivate crops. This indigenous knowledge is passed on through thousands of years from generation to generation by the community
• The 'Karez' technology is used in China to combat droughts. This is an indigenous knowledge in Xinjiang area of China that makes use of underground water efficiently. It takes advantage of topography for gravity irrigation and is still in use. This indigenous technology can be used in the face of a severe drought disaster.

Institutional arrangements for disaster preparedness, response and mitigation

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

The term, Institutional arrangements in the context of disaster management refers to formal or informal institutional, legal and procedural agreements between the lead agency (NDMA - National Disaster Management Authority) and other institutions involved in response, relief and rehabilitation processes that take place after the occurrence of any disaster.

Disaster preparedness

• NDMA and NDRF (National Disaster Response Force) are the primary institutional arrangements in India regarding disaster preparedness
• Disaster preparedness includes organizational activities that ensure that the systems, procedures and resources required in the event of a disaster are readily available to provide timely assistance to those affected.
• This is made possible by training, creation of awareness, establishment of disaster plans, evacuation plans, pre-positioning of stocks, early warning mechanism and strengthening of indigenous knowledge.
• Disaster preparedness is an umbrella concept including risk assessment, disaster prevention and disaster mitigation
• Analysis of a disaster response at an earlier date or different location is a useful test of preparedness.
• Institutional arrangement for disaster preparedness consists of :
• The National Crisis Management Committee
• A High Level Committee headed by the finance minister 
• A crisis management group headed by the home secretary and comprising of ministers from various departments
• The NDMA is responsible for laying policies and guidelines for disaster risk reduction

Disaster response

• The vice-chairman of the NDMA is responsible for laying out the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management and ensuring an effective and timely response to a disaster.
• NDMA is assisted by a national executive committee comprising of secretaries to the Government of India heading various departments
• The national Executive committee is responsible for preparing and updating a national plan for disaster management
• The state disaster management committee is headed by the Chief minister and is assisted by the state executive committee headed by the chief secretary of the state to prepare a state plan comprising of vulnerability to different forms of disasters, mitigation measures, capacity building and role of state government
• At the district level disaster management activities are supervised by the District Disaster Management Agency
• The local authorities ensure capacity building for managing disasters and carrying out relief and reconstruction in the affected areas.

Disaster mitigation

• The NDMA, SDMA and DDMA are responsible for strengthening the disaster mitigation efforts at the national, state and district levels respectively
• The NDMA is responsible for preparing a National Response Plan and a National mitigation plan
• The vision of the District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is to create a dedicated body for mitigation of disasters at the district level
• The DDMA should ensure that areas in the district vulnerable to disasters are identified and mitigation measures are taken up by the concerned authorities
• The guidelines for disaster mitigation are laid out by NDMA, SDMA, DDMA and local authorities
• The concerned authorities in the government at the national, state and district levels should lay down guidelines and provide technical assistance for disaster mitigation in their development plans and projects
• Community training and awareness programs for disaster mitigation should be provided by local authorities, Government and NGOs
• The Emergency Support Agencies (ESAs) meet regularly under the chairmanship of the central disaster management officer to review the progress of disaster mitigation efforts

Components of disaster relief

COMPONENTS OF DISASTER RELIEF

Relief is a transitionary phase that occurs response and short-term recovery operations. Relief activities should be undertaken in such a way that maintains the dignity of the individual and encourages self-reliance. Relief includes the immediate provision of basic human needs immediately following disaster events. It focusses on reducing and stabilising current impacts to prevent the impact of secondary hazards. For effective relief measures, there must be coordination and collaboration between the community, government, NGOs and private sectors. Relief is the provision of immediate shelter, life support and human needs of a person affected by Communities affected by a disaster, require immediate relief such as shelter, food, protection, security, water and sanitation. Each of these components are discussed in detail below:

WATER
Water is essential for all living organisms. During disaster relief operations:

• Arrangements for at least three and a half litres (3.5l) of potable water per person per day should be made
• At least 3 days of water supply should be available and a supply enough for two weeks is desirable
• Replace stored water every six months
• The water should be disinfected with liquid household chlorine bleach.
• The bleach should be stored at a temperature around 21C
• Since the amount of active chlorine in bleach decreases over time due to normal decay, it should be replaced every year

FOOD

• A disaster can easily disrupt the food supply at any time. Hence plans must be made to have atleast three days of food readily available
• The type of foods that should be stored should:
• have long storage life
• require little or no cooking, no refrigeration
• meet the needs of ALL family members especially those on special diet (babies or elders)
• foods should not be salty or spicy as these foods need more water that may be in short supply during disasters
• Packaged foods should be checked for their expiration date
• Foods ahould be stored away from petroleum products
• Foods should be protected from rodents an insects by storing them in boxes or in water proof, air-tight containers
• The water storage containers should be washed and sanitized
• The container used for storing drinking water should be:
• tightly sealed
• not made of glass (as it can break and hurt people)
• should not have been used to store toxic chemicals earlier
• not be made of plastic, cardboard bottles, jugs and containers used for milk or fruit juices

SANITATION

• Sanitation is an essential component during relief since disasters pose significant health threats in the form of contaminated drinking water and spread of infectious diseases.
• Sanitation is the hygenic way of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of waste
• Waste that can cause problems are human and animal feces, solid waste, domestic wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes and agricultural waste.
• The term 'hygenic' refers to use of engineering solutions (sewerage and wastewater treatment systems), simple technologies (latrines, septic tanks) or even simple personal hygiene practices (washing hands with soap), etc
• Adopting alternate methods of sanitation must be a priority after a disaster.
• In urban areas, the households do not have individual water sources and sanitation outlets but are connected by common water and sewer infrastructure.
• One of the major relief components involves creation of rudimentary sanitation infrastructure.
• Certain circumstances increase the chance for disease transmission.
• Most common instances of disease are caused by fecal contamination of water and food supplies. Outbreaks of communicable diseases are directly linked with population density and displacement.
• Disruption of sanitation services lead to a disease outbreak
• Open defecation in the area affected by disaster can be prevented by installation of mobile latrines
• Safe disposal of human excreta is a challenge that can be met by incorporating the latest technologies in environmental engineering
• Sanitation is an essential component in emergency response and rehabilitation efforts to limit the spread of diseases in the region.

SHELTER

• In the event of a disaster, the agency responding to the disaster should make arrangements to provide temporary shelter to the affected community 
• The emergency shelters should be easily erected with simple tools and minimum lifting gear.
• Emergency relief structures should be such that they can be erected in a few hours and re-deployed to meet other emegencies at another location at another date. (the relief shelters should be fully air transportable)
• Shelters provide a safe environment for affected people
• Community halls, cyclone shelters, tempporary structures, tents may be used as shelters in case of disasters
• Disaster shelters play a vital role in large-scale disasters and form an important part of disaster response and recovery
• Disaster relief shelters are used to provide private and secure places to people who have lost their usual accomodation due to some form of disaster
• Disaster relief shelters not only provide immediate and short-term shelter for victims of a disaster but also help them to recover from the trauma of a disaster and provide a base to start the process of rehabilitation
• The disaster relief shelters should be designed such that they should be capable of being stored and put to future use

HEALTH

• Disasters cause disruptions to health care infrastructure
• Hospitals may suffer structural damage or health personnel may be among the casualties thereby limiting the ability to provide health services to disaster victims
• Survivors of natural disasters need immediate care for injuries and disease
• Emergency health kits containing essential medical supplies and drugs are provided to victims as part of immediate response to disasters
• Disease instances are caused by fecal contamination of water and food supplies
• If disaster victims live in overcrowded conditions, the risk of disease outbreak increases
• Existing primary health care centers provide an opportunity to integrate and mainstream disaster response services.
• Integrating disaster management with primary health care provides optimal low-cost emergency medical assistance by utilizing existing primary health care network
• The risk of an epidemic after a disaster is related to the endemic levels of diseases in the population
• A few common communicable diseases in case of disasters are - dysentry, cholera, measles, whooping cough, meningococcal meningitis, tuberculosis, malaria, intestinal parasites, scabies, skin diseases, louse borne typhus and relapsing fever
• Natural disasters may alter the potential for disease transmission by altering the ecological conditions
• Most diseases transmitted in disasters are due to disease vectors and water
• A reliable disease reporting system shouuld be set-up to identify outbreaks and initiate control measures

WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Waste management and disposal services form an integral part of disaster relief operations
• The process of waste management does not occupy the top priority during disaster management operations. The top priority is to rescue the affected population
• During disaster management operations, the waste is of two types:
• Primary waste that is generated due to the disaster and
• Secondary waste that is generated by relief efforts
• Primary waste consists of debris containing concrete, various types of roofing material, wood, insulation, mud, large amount of plastic, trees, branches, leaves, vegetation and foliage, petroleum products, combustible fuels and their residue, furniture and other household goods, Electricity poles: transformers and other Wasted Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) related to electrical transmission and communication lines, Hospital waste:Corpses and dead animals, Sewage from burst municipal lines and garbage from temporary site, Items containing Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), asbestos and other hazardous substances, metal scrap from damaged buildings, industrial structures and vehicles.
• Secondary disaster waste contains municipal waste and sewage generated at relief centres housing large populations, packaging material received from relief agencies, medical waste from field hospitals that contain people and animals suffering from disease or injury, municipal waste and sewage from towns and cities where existing sewage systems have been damaged and people continue to live
• In order to plan for disaster waste management, the magnitude and composition of disaster waste must be estimated and plans should be developed for waste collection and disposal
• Designated resources (field workers) should be employed for primary disaster waste collection, segregation and disposal
• Steps should be taken to minimize secondary disaster waste as it adds up to clean-up efforts
• Hazardous site should be cleaned to minimize long term impact.
• Outsourcing disaster waste management should be considered if manpower available on site is insufficient
• Trained manpower will be needed to handle waste in the context of a CBRN disaster
• Disaster waste management should be given adequate importance at the planning stage to develop a professional and systematic  waste management action plan

Institutional Arrangements

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Institutional arrangements are formal or informal institutional, legal or procedural agreements between the national disaster management agency and other governmental institutions. They play an essential part in the entire process of disaster management. Institutional arrangements refer to the policies, systems and processes used by organizations to legislate, plan and manage their activities efficiently and effectively coordinate with supporting agencies thereby fulfilling the purpose of their creation.

In India, the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DMA) set institutional and coordination mechanisms for effective disaster management at the national, state and district levels. By this act, the Government of India (GoI) created a multi-tiered institutional system consisting of the National Disaster Management Agency (NDMA) headed by the Prime Minister, State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA's) headed by the chief ministers and the District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA's) by the district collectors and co-chaired by elected representatives of the local authorities of the respective districts. All these bodies have been setup to facilitate the fundamental shift from relief-centric approach to a proactive, holistic and integrated approach of strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation and emergency response.

1. At the national level, the ministry of home affairs is the primary point of contact for all matters concerning disaster management
1. Under the MoHA (Ministry of Home Affairs) the NDMA has been constituted for coordination of disaster management at the national level under the Disaster Management act of 2005
2. The Prime Minister of India is the chairperson of the NDMA
3. NDMA is the apex body for management of disasters in India
4. The National Response Plan and National Mitigation Plan are prepared by the GoI.
5. Various Ministries and departments also prepare their own response plans that are approved by the NDMA
6. A National Emergency Operations Center (NEOC) functions in the MoHA with sophisticated equipment and most modern technology for disaster management
2. The Crisis Management Group (CMG) consists of officers from various ministries.
1. The functions of the CMG are reviewed every year and contingency plans are formulated by various departments/ministries/organizations in their respective sectors along with required measures to handle disasters
2. The CMG coordinates activities of central ministries and state governments in relation disaster preparedness and relief
3. In the event of a natural disaster, the CMG meets frequently to review relief operations and extend all possible to overcome the situation effectively
4. All the secretaries of concerned ministries are its members
5. CMG implements the decisions of the cabinet committees 

 

Climate change adaptation

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming in order to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming. Global warming and its effects are bound to last many years, and adaptation would be necessary to the resulting changes in climate. Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to face the effects of global warming. This capacity and potential for humans to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations. The developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt. Adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts.

Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development. The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades.  The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference, called COP 16 was held in Cancún, Mexico where several donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, although the fund set up during COP16 in Cancún, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been readily available as major donors like the USA have decided to stop contributing to the fund.

However, the adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change. In another response to climate change called climate mitigation suggests reduction of Green House Gases (GHG) emissions or removal of these gases from the atmosphere through carbon sinks. It is now evident that reduction in emissions would not prevent further climate change impacts. Hence climate adaptation is the only option left.

In the absence of mitigation efforts, the effects of climate change would make adaptation for some natural ecosystems impossible. Climate adaptation programs may interfere with existing development programs leading to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups. Some examples of climate change adaptation are-

• Prioritizing adaptation efforts in communities that have higest vulnerability
• Predicting climate change related trends based on assessment of current risk, vulnerability and climate variability
• Integrate long-term sustainable development and poverty reduction strategies
• Strengthening existing capacities
• Developing robust mobilization mechanisms and ensure financial and technical support to local disaster management officials
• Arrange improved and tested early warning systems, contingency plans along with integrated response to ensure effective community based adaptation and risk reduction
• Disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation cannot managed as individual events. They are inevitably interlinked
• The community should be aware of relevant risks thatt should be quantifiable
• Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction should be factored in all divisions
• Capacity building efforts should take place at local, regional, national and international levels
• Workers at the site help in achieving rescue efforts on the ground while international donors, agencies along with national governments play an important role in establishing an environment conducive to channel resources and technical support wher it is required.
• International agencies like the red cross, help at the local level by their extensive volunteer base and long presence in communities

Hazard and vulnerability profile of India

HAZARD AND VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

Indian sub-continent has unique geo-climatic and socio-political conditions that make it vulnerable to both the natural as well as manmade disasters. Around 6% of the population of India is impacted annually by the exposures to disasters. They Key natural disasters in India include floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides and avalanches that have resulted in loss of lives and livelihoods.

The key vulnerabilities of India include-

Coastal States, particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat on west coast are vulnerable to cyclones

 

4 crore hectare land mass is vulnerable to floods and river erosion.
 

68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought.
 

55 per cent of total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and vulnerable to earthquakes of moderate to high density. 

Vulnerability to disasters or emergencies of Chemical, Biological Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) origin has increased on account of socioeconomic development. The changing climate also worsens the vulnerabilities. The occurrence of heat waves, cold waves, floods, droughts, intense cyclones and flash floods is getting increased due to climate change and global warming.

 India's hazard profile


India is prone to disasters due to a number of factors; both natural and human-induced, including adverse geo-climatic conditions, topographic features, environmental degradation, population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation, non-scientific development practices etc. Various hazards to which India is prone to can be broadly divided into three categories-

1.  Hydrological or climate related
2. Geological and 
3. Technological hazards.

Hydrological or climate related hazards

FLOODS
Floods can be caused by heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge, inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to streams/ rivers. ice jams or landslides blocking streams, typhoons and cyclones etc. Further, flash floods occur because of high rate of water flow particularly in areas with less permeability of soil.
Over 40 million hectare of landmass in India is prone to floods. Nearly 75% of the total annual rainfall is concentrated over a short south-west monsoon season of three to four months from June to September. As a result there is a very heavy discharge from the rivers during this period causing widespread floods. Flood problem is chronic in at least 10 states. From October to December each year, a very large area of South India, including Tamil Nadu, the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and the union territory of Puducherry, receives up to 30 percent of its annual rainfall from the northeast monsoon (or winter monsoon). These have caused devesatiing floods in Chennai in 2015. Most devastating floods in recent times have been the 2013 Assam floods, 2013 Uttarakhand Floods, 2012 Brahamputra Floods etc.

CYCLONES

India has a very long coastline which is exposed to tropical cyclones arising in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclone-prone regions in the world. In India cyclones occur usually in April-May, and also between October and December. The Eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones as about 80 percent of total cyclones generated in the region hit there.  The worst hitting cyclones have been the Andhra Pradesh cyclone of November 1977 and the super cyclone of Odisha in the year 1999. The impact of the cyclones is mainly confined to the coastal districts, the maximum destruction being within 100 Km. from the centre of the cyclones and on either side of the storm track.  The principal dangers from a cyclone include the gales and strong winds; torrential rain and high tidal waves (storm surges). Most casualties are caused by coastal inundation by tidal waves and storm surges.

HEAT WAVES, COLD WAVES and FOG

Heat waves refer to the extreme positive departure from the maximum temperature in summers. The fatalities caused by heat waves have increased in recent decades.  The problem of heat wave is compounded by a decrease in diurnal temperature Range (DTR). In urban areas, the heat wave is increasing gaining notoriety for more and more fatalities. Cold waves occur mainly due to the extreme low temperature coupled with incursion of dry cold winds from north-west. Most affected areas of country due to the cold waves include the western and north-western regions and also Bihar, UP directly affected by the western disturbances.


THUNDERSTORM, HAILSTORM and DUST STORM
India’s central, north-eastern, north-western and northern parts are generally affected by these. The southern coastal areas are less prone to thunderstorms, hailstorms and dust storms. The hailstorms are more frequent in Assam, Uttarakhand and some parts of Maharashtra. Dust storms are common in Rajasthan, MP and Haryana. Tornadoes are rare in India.

DROUGHTS


Drought refers to the situation of less moisture in the soil (which makes the land unproductive) and scarcity of water for drinking, irrigation, industrial uses and other purposes, usually caused by deficient/less than average rainfall over a long period of time. Some states of India feature the perennial drought such as Rajasthan, Odisha, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh etc.
Sixteen percent of the country’s total area is drought-prone and approximately 50 million people are affected annually by droughts. In India about 68 percent of net sown area in the country is drought-prone. Most of the drought-prone areas identified by the Government of India lie in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas of the country. In the arid and semi-arid zones, very severe droughts occur once in every eight to nine years.

GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS

EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake is almost impossible to be predicted, so it is the most destructive of all natural disasters. It is almost impossible to make arrangements and preparations against damages and collapses of buildings and other man-made structures hit by an earthquake. More than half of India’s total area is vulnerable to seismic activity of varying intensities.
The most vulnerable regions are located in the Himalayan, Sub-Himalayan belt and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The Himalayan ranges are among world’s youngest fold mountains so the subterranean Himalayans are geologically very active.  The Himalayan frontal arc, flanked by the Arakan Yoma fold belt in the east and the Chaman fault in the west make one of the seismically active regions in the world.


TSUNAMI

Tsunami refers to the displacement of a large volume of a body of water such as Ocean. Most Tsunamis are seismically generated, result of abrupt deformation of sea floor resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water.
The Tsunami waves are small in amplitude and long wavelength (often hundred of kilometers long). The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by Tsunamis generated mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the two potential source regions, viz. the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and the Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.


LANDSLIDES 

Landslides are common in India in Himalayan region as well as Western Ghats. The Himalayan ranges are among the youngest fold mountains of world. They comprise a series of seven curvilinear parallel folds running along a grand arc of around 3400 kilometers. The landslides in this region are probably more frequent than any other areas in the world.
The Western Ghats, particularly Nilgiri hills also are notorious for frequent landslides.

INDUSTRIAL, CHEMICAL & NUCLEAR DISASTERS

The industrial and chemical disasters can occur due to accident, negligence or incompetence. They may result in huge loss to lives and property. The Hazardous industries and the workers in these industries are particularly vulnerable to chemical and industrial disasters.
The most significant chemical accidents in recorded history was the 1984 Bhopal Gas disaster, in which more than 3,000 people were killed after a highly toxic vapour, (methyl isocyanate), was released at a Union Carbide pesticides factory.
 

India’s Hazard Profile India is prone to disasters due to a number of factors; both natural and human-induced, including adverse geo-climatic conditi

Structural and Non-structural solutions

STRUCTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS

There is a large gap between the groups who prefer “structural” solutions to disaster management and those who prefer “non- structural” solutions.

• Structural solutions include engineered solutions such as redesigning buildings and designing physical barriers to disaster events to reduce damage.  Non-structural solutions include social solutions such as early warning, evacuation planning, and emergency response preparedness.

• Structural groups, which are often comprised of engineers insist that only structural solutions can surely prevent countries from economic loss and can contribute to the development of the nation.

• Structural measures are any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or the application of engineering techniques or technology to achieve hazard resistance and resilience in structures or systems.

• Common structural measures for disaster risk reduction include dams, flood levies, ocean wave barriers, earthquake-resistant construction and evacuation shelters

• Structural solutions can protect peoples lives and property 

• Structural measures refer to any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or application of engineering techniques to achieve hazard-resistance and resilience in structures or systems

• Non-structural groups rely on early warnings, quick evacuations and emergency response

• Common non-structural measures include building codes, land-use planning laws and their enforcement, research and assessment, information resources and public awareness programmes.  

• Non-structural measures include any measure not involving physical construction that uses knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, in particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training and education.

• Immediate emergency response after a disaster through non-structural solutions is a popular “investment” to get support without any financial expense